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Different Types of RNA in a Cell

RNA plays many crucial roles inside the cell along with DNA. Basically there are three main types of RNA in a cell.
1. mRNA or messenger RNA that codes for protein
2. rRNA which forms the ribosomes for protein synthesis
3. tRNA as adaptor which binds amino acids and rRNA and translates mRNA to proteins

But many other RNAs has a regulatory role or in processing of pre RNAs
4. snRNA (Small Nuclear RNA): forms snRNPs which is involved in mRNA processing by removing introns.
5. snoRNA (small nucleolar RNA) that forms snRNPs which is involved in maturation and assembly of ribosomal RNAs.
Function of snoRNA: rRNA processing mainly by methylation and pseudourydylation of pre rRNAs during ribosome formation in the nucleolus.
6. siRNA: small interfering RNA involved in RNA interference, a natural phenomenon double stranded RNAs lead to the degradation of mRNA with identical sequences.
siRNA is 21-23 nucleotide double stranded fragments formed for degradation of mRNAs with same sequence during RNA silencing or gene silencing.
Function:
Blocking viral replication and restricting the movement of mobile elements. dsRNA intermediates are involved in both processes.
7. hnRNA: heteronuclear RNA: High molecular weight RNAs (up to 50000 nucleotides), representing many different nucleotide sequences found in the nucleus. Include unprocessed pre mRNA with both introns and exons.
8. Catalytic RNAs or ribozymes: are called as ribozymes. Examples include peptidyl tranferase, spliceosome etc.
Know more on ribozymes
9. Telomerase RNA: RNA molecule that acts as a template for the addition of nucleotides to the 3’ end of the duplicating strand thus avoiding end replication problem.
10. gRNA: It is guide RNA needed for RNA editing, in removal and insertion of bases into mRNA, reported in some protists.
11. tmRNA: Transfer-messenger RNA (abbreviated tmRNA, also known as 10Sa RNA) is a bacterial RNA molecule with dual tRNA-like and messenger RNA-like properties.

Cell Theory and Modern Cell Theory

Robert Hooke was the first to describe cell and he published his observation in his book Micrographia (1670). He sliced a piece of cork and placed under his microscope. He observed honey comb like structural units and called it as the “cell”.

Leeuwenhoek (1674) was the first one to observe live cells under microscope. He observed many things including bacteria under his primitive microscope and drew beautiful sketches of his observations.

If you want to see this classical book, follow this link http://archive.nlm.nih.gov/proj/ttp/flash/hooke/hooke.html

Cell theory was actually a generalization of observations made by many scientists around the world.

Cell theory was proposed by Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden and Rudolf Virchow

The three tenets are

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells (Schwann and Schleiden, 1838-39).

2. The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life (Schwann and Schleiden, 1838-39).

Schleiden proposed that new cells arise from within the old cells, specifically from the nucleus. This was corrected by Rudolf Virchow who proposed “Theory of cell lineage” stating that “omnis cellulae e cellula” (all cells arise from pre-existing cells).

3. All cells arise from pre existing cells by cell division (Rudolf Virchow, 1858).

Modern cell theory

Some more points are added with the advancement of our knowledge in cytology and molecular biology.

• The cell contains hereditary information DNA which is passed on from cell to cell during cell division

• All cells are basically the same in chemical composition and metabolic activities

• All basic chemical and physiological functions are carried out inside the cells (digestion, movement etc)

• A cells activity depends on the activities of sub cellular structures within the cell (organelles, plasma membrane etc)

Learn more:

Exceptions to cell theory

What are Place cells and Grid Cells in Brain? Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine 2014 explained

How Place cells and grid Cells functions in brain's spatial representation system?
Awarded to: Dr John O’Keefe, Dr May-Britt Moser & Dr Edvard I Moser

Nobel prize 2014 winners in Physiology and Medicine

Discovery: How nerve cells in the rat brain works in finding out and recollecting a place (sense of place) or How it works in navigation ability?
What is the ‘sense of place’?

It gives a perception of the position of the body in the environment and in relation to surrounding objects. It is how we find places?

Let me explain with an example, in day to day life, we used to move around to find places that we need to go. Suppose I want to go to a nearby Zoo and this is my first time visit. Once I reached there, my brain relates the place with some surrounding objects. Within 2 to 3 visits to the same Zoo, I could locate it without any further help. Now I have the “sense of that place”. Now my brain has perception of position of that Zoo actually in relation to some surrounding objects. Suppose that entire area has been reconstructed. Now I may not be able to locate the Zoo all on a sudden as the surrounding objects that my brain used for positioning or relocating has changed.

How do we navigate to a place?

It is linked with a sense of distance and direction that is based on the integration of motion and knowledge of previous positions. Our brain creates a mental map in connection with an environment or place.

This sense of place and ability to navigate are one of the most complex processes in brain.

Dr John O’Keefe Experiment (Finding the Place cells)

Experimental Organism: rats
He discovered place cells. He allowed the rats to move freely in a bounded area. Certain nerve cells were active when the rat reached a particular place in the environment. He called this cell as “place cells” and the environment as “place field” (Fig. 1). Different place cells were activated at different places. Place cells are located in a part of the brain called hippocampus.

He also showed that place cells has memory functions also. Different place cells become active at different places and the combination of activity in many place cells creates an internal neural map representing a particular environment. Thus place cells together form a spatial reference map system or sense of place for the brain in connection with a particular environment or place. Place cells provide a cellular substrate for memory processes, where a memory of an environment or place is stored as specific combinations of place cells.

Dr May-Britt Moser & Dr Edvard I Moser (Finding the Grid cells)

When the rat passed certain locations, certain nerve cells in the entorhinal cortex were activated. They called these cells as grid cells because of its unusual firing pattern. A single grid cell fires or gets activated when the rat reaches particular locations in an environment. These locations are arranged in a hexagonal pattern (Fig 2). They concluded that grid cells are involved in measuring movement distances and thus provided a metric to the spatial maps in hippocampus.

Brains navigational system involves other type of nerve cells like head direction cells and border cells. Head direction cells act like a compass and are active when the head of an animal points in a certain direction. Border cells are active in reference to walls that the animal encounters when moving in a closed environment.

Grid cells, head direction cells, border cells together with place cells form a complex network within the hippocampus. This network constitutes a comprehensive positioning system, an inner GPS in the brain (Fig. 3). Similar grid and place cell systems are found in many mammalian species including humans.

Applications: A better understanding of neural mechanisms underlying spatial memory is important in understanding and treating memory disorders including dementia and Alzheimer’s. O’ Keefe and co-workers showed in mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease that the degradation of place fields correlated with the deterioration of the animal’s spatial memory. The discovery of place cells and grid cells is undoubtedly a major leap in our understanding of how specialized nerve cells work together to execute higher cognitive function like ‘sense of place’ and navigational ability. Hopefully this understanding may help us to treat brain disorders in a better manner in near future.

Reference: http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2014/advanced.html
Image credit: http://www.nobelprize.org/ Original Paper- Download (PDF)

Types of DNA binding domains with examples

DNA binding proteins interact with DNA by means of various structural motifs, and can stimulate or repress transcription of messenger RNA, depending on the properties and location of the DNA sequence to which they bind.

DNA binding proteins are classified into four types:- homeodomain proteins, zinc finger proteins, leucine zipper proteins, and helix loop helix proteins.
I) Homeodomain protein :

This protein consists of three linked alpha helices (helices 1, 2and 3). Helices 2 and 3 are arranged in a conspicuous helix turn helix motif.
A 60 amino acid long region (homeodomain) within helix 3 binds specifically to DNA segments that contain the sequence 5’ATTA3’

Examples of homeodomain proteins are:
a) Octanucleotide binding protein 1 (OCT –1), which regulates the histone gene H2B, the thymine kinase gene, and SnRNP genes
b) Octanucleotide binding protein 2 (OCT-2) , which regulates various immunoglobulin genes.
pituitary specific factor 1(Pit 1), which regulates the growth hormone gene, the thyroid stimulated hormone gene, and the prolactin gene.

II) Zinc finger protein
a) it has one alpha helix
b) It contains one zinc atom bound to four cysteine amino acids
c) It contains a hormone binding region
d) A 70 amino acid long region near the zinc atom binds specifically to DNA segments.

Examples of Zinc finger proteins are:
a) Transcription factor IIIA(TFIIIA), which engages RNA polymerase II to the gene promoter
b) Sp1(First described for its action on the SV40 promoter), which engages RNA polymerase II to the gene promoter by binding to the GC box
c) Glucocorticoid receptor, estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, thyroid hormone receptor (erbA), retinoid acid receptor, and the vitamin D3 receptor.

III) Leucine Zipper Protein

It consists of of an alpha helix that contains a region in which every seventh amino acid is leucine, which has the effect of lining up all the leucine residues on one side of the alpha helix.
The leucine residues allow for dimerization of the two lecine zipper proteins and formation of Y shaped dimer.
Dimerization may occur between two of the same proteins(homodimers, eg., Jun-Jun) or two different proteins(heterodimers, eg., Fos-Jun).
It contains a 20 amino acid long region that binds specifically to DNA segments.

Example of Leucine Zipper proteins are:
a)CCAAT/ enhancer binding protein (C/EBP), which regulates the albumin gene and the alpha 1 anti trypsin gene.
b) Cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB), which regulates the somatostatin gene and the proenkephalin gene.
c)Finkel osteogeneic sarcoma virus (Fos) protein, a product of of the c fos protooncogene, which regulates various genes involved in the cell cycle and cell transformation.
d)Jun Protein, a product of the c-jun proto-oncogene, which regulates various genes involved in the cell cycle and cell transformation.

IV) Helix loop helix protein (HLH)

It consists of a short alpha helix connected by a loop to a loner alpha helix.
The loop allow for dimerization of two HLH proteins and formation of Y shaped dimer.
Dimerization may occur between two of the same proteins (homo dimers) or two different proteins (heterodimers)

Example of Helix loop helix proteins are:
a) MyoD protein, which regulates various gees involved in muscle development.
b) Myc protein, a product of the c myc protooncogene, which regulates various genes involved in the cell cycle.

Genetics Practice Problems and Answers

1. The ability to taste a chemical called PTC is inherited as an autosomal dominant allele. What is the probability that children descendant from parents both heterozygous for this trait can taste PTC

a) 0

b)1

c)3/4

d)1/2

Answer. If you let T represent allele for the ability to taste PTC, then the cross would be Tt xTt. The Punnet square that follows show that ¾ of the offspring have ability to taste PTC (1/4 TT +1/2 Tt)

	T	t
T	TT	Tt
t	Tt	tt

Ans: 3/4

2. Which of the following is true of gametes produced by an individual with genotype Dd?

a)1/2D and 1/2D

b) 1/2D and 1/2d

c) 1/2Dd and 1/2dD

d)All Dd

Ans: d)All Dd

3. Three genes A,B,C are located on a chromosome. The cross over percentage between A and B is 10% while that between A and C is 8% while that between B and C exhibits a cross over percentage of 18%. What will be the correct order of these genes in the chromosome.

a) XYZ

b)YXZ

c)YZX

d)none of these

Ans: b)YXZ

4. What is the cross over percentage between two genes which are 10 map units apart?

a) 5%

b) 10%

c) 20%

d) 100%

Ans: The actual distance between two genes is represented as map unit. One map unit is equivalent to the percentage (%) of crossing over between the two genes.

Ans: b) 10%

5. For the cross AABBCCDd X AAbbCcDd, what is the probability that an offspring will be?

a) 1/16 b) 1/8 c) ¼ d) 3/8

Answer

It is not practical to make Punnett square for genotypes involving more than two genes. In this problem, you asked about the frequency of one specific offspring, AABbCcDd. To solve this problem, look at each gene separately.

· Looking at the first gene, the parents are AA X AA and all offspring will be AA (frequency of 1)

· For the second gene, BB X bb, all offspring will be Bb (frequency of 1)

· For the third gene, the parents are CC x Cc, which products ½ CC and ½ Cc.

· For the fourth gene, Dd x Dd, produces ¼ DD, ½ Dd and ½ dd

To find the probability of AA is 1, of Bb is 1, of Cc is ½, and of Dd is ½.

Then find the product of these frequencies.

· For AABbCcDd the product is 1 X 1 X ½ X ½ =1/4

Answer c) ¼

6. If you roll a pair of dice, what is the probability that they will both turn up a three?

a)1/2

b)1/4

c)1/16

d)1/36

Answer:

The chance that one dice will turn up a three is 1 in 6, or 1/6.

For both dice to turn up a three, the probability is determined by multiplying the probability of each event happening independently, or 1/6 x 1/6 =1/36

Answer: d)1/36

ICAR ARS NET Model Questions on Agricultural statistics

1. Unit less measure of dispersion is
a) Range
b) Standard deviation
c) Mean deviation
d) CV

2. Which measure of central tendency requires data arrangement in ascending or descending order for its estimation?
a)Arithmetic mean
b)Median
c)Mode
d)Harmonic mean

3. The most frequent occurred value of data or whose frequency is maximum is known as
a)Arithmetic mean
b)Median
c)Mode
d)Harmonic mean

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, and Mode)

Points to remember: Measure of Central Tendency

4. In a symmetrical distribution of data which pair is correct?
a) Mean = Median=Mode
b) Mean > Median >Mode
c) Mean < Median<Mode
d) Mean = Median>Mode

5. To calculate the average speed, which item of central tendency is most suited?
a)Median
b) Mode
c) Weighted HM
d) Weighed AM

6. Mean deviation is the least when calculated about (minimal property)
a)median
b)mode
c)arithmetic mean
d)geometric mean

7. The hypothesis of committing type I error is known as
a) test of significance
b) level of significance
c) composite hypothesis
d) none of the above

8. For comparison of two means from independent samples which test is applicable
a) F test
b) t test
c) z test
d) chi square test

9. The coefficient of variation can be calculated by using the formula
a) Standard deviation / geometric mean x 100
b) Arithmetic mean /Standard deviation x 100
c) Square root of Standard deviation/ arithmetic mean x 100
d) Standard deviation / arithmetic mean x 100

10. Arithmetic mean and variance are always equal in
a) Binomial
b) Poisson distribution
c) Normal distribution
d) None of the above

Learn more:

Answers
1. d) CV
2. b)Median
3. c)Mode
4. a) Mean = Median=Mode
5. c) Weighted HM
6. a)median
7. b) level of significance
8. b) t test
9. d) Standard deviation / arithmetic mean x 100
10. b) Poisson distribution

ICAR ARS NET II Notification 2014

The Agricultural Scientists Recruitment Board (ASRB ) will hold a combined ARS-2014(Preliminary) Examination and NET-2014(II) during 22.9.2014 to 28.9.2014 in Online mode at 23 Centres across India in a staggered slot-wise examination format as per the Rules and Scheme of Examination indicated in this notification.

Candidates are advised to read the notification carefully before filling the Online Application Form.

Important Dates

ARS-2014(Preliminary) Examination and NET-2014(II) during 22.9.2014 to 28.9.2014 in Online mode.
The ARS-2014 (Main) Examination will be conducted on 28.12.2014.
The last date for filling up of online application form is 1700 hrs on 08.09.2014

Books to Refer for ICAR ARS NET

Age limit:

For ARS-2014: A candidate must have attained the age of 21 years but not have attained the age of 32 years as on 01.08.2014. Age relaxation is admissible to the various categories as per rules. For details please refer to the Rule 2 of the Rules of the Examination .

For NET-2014 (II): A candidate must have attained the age of 21 years as on 01.08.2014. There is no upper age limit for the National Eligibility Test.

Transaction charges for Debit Card/Credit Card/NEFT/Challan payment, as the case may be, have to be borne by the candidate.

The fee must be paid online through the website: http://www.asrb.org.in

i. Payment can be made through Debit Card/Credit Card from any Bank.

ii. Payment using the online Challan generated (in case of payment to be made using Challan) can be made in any of the branches of the Syndicate Bank (list of the branches of Syndicate Bank can be obtained from the Branch locator link on : http://www.syndicatebank.in) In such cases, the paid copy of the ASRB portion of the Online generated challan for application fee must be uploaded in the

relevant place of the application form without which the application will summarily be rejected.

Books to Refer for ICAR ARS NET

How to apply:

A candidate seeking admission to the Examination must apply online in the prescribed
Application Form available on the website: http://www.asrb.org.in . A candidate must read the provisions contained in this Notification for Combined ARS-2014 and NET –2014 (II) carefully and abide by the same. A candidate must fulfil all the conditions of eligibility regarding age limits, educational qualifications, etc. prescribed for admission to the examination.
The candidates are not required to attach copy of any of the documents / certificates in support of their candidature at the time of submission of online application.
No request for change in any field i.e., Name, Father’s Name, Date of Birth, Gender, E-mail Id, Mobile No., Phone No., Category. etc. will be considered under any circumstances. Candidates are therefore advised to be very careful while filling up their application forms.

Candidates are required to keep ready the following relevant details /information /documents:

a) Combined Notification for ARS Examination-2014 and NET-2014 (II).

b) Name ( as recorded in Secondary level Examination certificate)

c) Father’s name ( as recorded in the Secondary level Examination certificate)

d) Complete Address for Correspondence

e) Complete Permanent Address

f) Matriculation or equivalent Certificate

g) Master’s Degree Certificate/Provisional Degree Certificate/Transcript/

Marksheets; if available.

h) Doctorate Degree Certificate/Provisional Degree Certificate/Transcript/

Marksheet.

i) Center opted for Combined ARS-2014 (Preliminary) Examination and

NET-2014 (II) (Please check the Examination Centers in this notification in

Appendix – I).

j) Center opted for ARS-2014 (Main) Examination (Please check theExamination Centers in this notification in Appendix - II).

k) Scanned copy of recent passport size photograph taken against white

background only of a maximum size of 150 kB in .jpg format only with theface covering at least 2/3

rd of the total space and taken without spectacles.

l) Scanned copy of signatures taken in Black/Blue ink on a white paper only in .jpg format only.

m) Debit Card/Credit Card details for online payment of fee.

n) Valid and active e-mail id.

Plan of NET 2014

Online Test Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) Demo Test *

Total Number of Questions: 150
Total Marks: 150
Duration of Test: 2 (Two) hours

Previous Question Papers Free (ICAR NET Preparation Resources)

First and foremost thing is to begin the preparation now onwards

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Biology Exams 4 U

Different Types of RNA in a Cell

Cell Theory and Modern Cell Theory

What are Place cells and Grid Cells in Brain? Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine 2014 explained

Types of DNA binding domains with examples

Genetics Practice Problems and Answers

ICAR ARS NET Model Questions on Agricultural statistics

ICAR ARS NET II Notification 2014

Immunology Practice Test on Antibodies or Immunoglobulins

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